Music Appreciation Class Notes
These notes are to assist the student in Music Appreciation to retain an historical perspective on the development of musical style. The topics are arranged in chronological order as they will be presented in class lectures.
Unit One: Ancient Music, Theories, Overtones.
Ancient music exists in many forms both real and anecdotal. A complete study of these cultures is far beyond the scope of a general music class. Some significant aspects of musical cultures would include:
Egyptian: Ceremonial dancers and singers as well as various instruments are depicted in sculpture, painting and hieroglyphic representations;
Chinese: Universal order generated by the cosmic vibration fixed by Imperial decree as a means of securing and preserving social order;
Greek: Music as a formal system for the declamation of poetry and dramatic narrative. Plato mentions the moral qualities of the various modes or scales of Greek music, each of which was used only for a certain fixed and defined type of expression. Modes are mathematical subdivisions of the octave, not identical with later ecclesiastical modes employed in plainchant by St. Ambrose and Pope Gregory. The Pythagorean theorem describes the relationship of harmonic intervals as ratios using tuned string or wind column models;
Indian: The raga (mode) and tala (rhythm) form the pitch and time relationships in formal structure of Indian music. These forms originally applied to Hindu ritual sacred dances and chants. More recently Indian melodic modes have been used in improvisational instrumental music.
Overtones are the series of tones or partials that are generated by a vibrating medium such as a string or column of air. Overtones form the acoustical basis for most harmonic and tuning systems because consonance and dissonance is a function of sympathetic vibrations. This can be demonstrated with piano strings. What sequence do they occur in? (See handout: fundamental, octave, fifth, etc.) We can hear that the vibrations of different pitches become weaker as they proceed away from the fundamental tone. Notice how the first five pitches in the series form a major triad. The timbre (tone color) of any given instrument (or sound) is dependent on the how many and which overtones are present in the complex composite tone of the instrument. Listening demonstration: Close Encounters title theme by John Williams. Why do I need to know about the overtone series? Next time you meet an alien, or are abducted aboard a flying saucer you can communicate with them via this naturally occurring universal truth of harmonic vibration.
Unit Two: Medieval Times
The study of musical repertoire usually begins with the medieval period because this is when musical notation began and a direct line in the development of western music can be traced from its antecedents in the medieval period. Liturgical music embodied in the corpus of Gregorian chant, its later evolution into organum and polyphonic forms are one main stream of musical development. Secular music found its expression in the songs and stories of the troubadours, traveling performers purveying tales of courtly love, heroic exploits and chivalry. The Medieval period can be roughly dated from the fall of the western branch of the Roman Empire to the dawn of the Renaissance.
Gregorian Chant: The body of plainsong or liturgical music codified and collected under the direction of Pope Gregory the Great during his pontificate (590-604).
Plainsong: Early Christian liturgical music probably deriving from Jewish and/or other Middle Eastern sources codified by St Ambrose in the year 384 following the method of the astronomer Ptolemy.
Ecclesiastical Modes: Divisions of the octave into distinct intervallic sequences usurping the ancient Greek nomenclature forming the melodic basis for Gregorian chant.
Monody: unison singing of one melodic line at the unison or octave.
Organum: The doubling of a melodic line at the fifth or fourth above or below in parallel motion, as described in Musica Enchiriadis, a musical treatise from the 9th century.
Polyphony: The blending of traditional plainchant with melodic counterpoint beginning in the 11th century by definition involving at least two melodic lines or voices. The center of early polyphonic music was at the Monastery of St. Martial at Limoges in modern day France.
Gymel: An English discant, or two-part song from the 13th tp 15th centuries, deriving from the Latin gemellum meaning twin. Noted for its frequent passages using parallel thirds and sixths.
Fauxbourdon: The French version of the Gymel as employed by composers Dufay and Binchois, with the distinction that the cantus firmus is in the top or highest voice, and that it was a written rather than improvisational style.
Cantus firmus: Literally, fixed song. As it applies to Medieval music, it is generally the Gregorian chant used as the subject of embellishment by polyphonic means.
Staff notation: Exact written representation of pitch and mensuration generally accredited the Guido d’Arezzo (c. 990-1050).
Liber Usualis: Collection of all the music used in the Catholic liturgy organized by seasonal chronology of the liturgical year.
Leonin and Perotin: Late 12th Composers of polyphony centered at Notre Dame de Paris.
Ars Antiqua: Term used to describe the 11th and 12th century learned style of counterpoint at Limoges and Paris.
Troubadours and Trouveres: A secular or popular style of music originating in folk music and dance. These balladeers traveled about singing songs, reciting poems and stories of chivalry. The subject of these texts is generally a narrative expounding heroic exploits and/or courtly love. The language is in the vernacular. These minstrels established a vogue in Northern France and Germany, where they were known as “minnesingers.”
Ballade: A secular genre that originated in France in the 14th century and became popular all over Europe. These songs mix poetry and music in expressions of courtly love, valorous or heroic exploits and chivalrous endeavors.
Ars Nova: In the works of Phillippe de Vitry (1291-1361) and Guillaume de Machaut (1300-1377) we see the synthesis of church, folk and courtly traditions in music into a new musical expression in which the ear is the guiding principle. The sensual quality of sound becomes the central focus of their work. It is distinguished from the earlier Limoge and Notre Dame schools in that the tenor no longer is based upon Gregorian chant, but rather uses folk tunes or newly composed melodies as the cantus firmus. Also significant at this time was the development of strictly secular vocal forms such as the madrigal as exemplified in the works of Giovanni de Cascia (1300-1350) and Francesco Landini (1325-1397). Purely instrumental music took expression in the introduction of the lute, used for dance music and solo works, becoming particularly popular in Spain.
The Golden Age of Polyphony: Pre-Renaissance music reached its zenith in the 14th century with the development of harmonic ideas based on the thirds and sixths of the gymel and fauxbourdon techniques with an emphasis on beauty of sound and essential musical quality. An example of such a composition would be the motet Spem in Alium by Thomas Tallis (1505-1585). Other notable composers of this period would include Giovanni da Palestrina (1525- 1594) in Italy, Tomas Luis de Victoria ((1535-1611) in Spain, and the Flemish school of composers including Joannis Okeghem ((1430-1495) and Josquin des Pres (1450-1521).
Unit Three: The Renaissance
The Renaissance Period: The Renaissance brought a shift away from the strictly religious modes of artistic expression to an awakening of interest in the humanities as introduced by Erasmus. The rise of the middle class led to leisure time activities. Study of the arts and literature of ancient Greece led to a flowering of various types of music both vocal and instrumental. Especially significant was the introduction of opera following the precepts of Greek theatrical drama. Vocal music developed in the form of madrigal, quodlibet, and other songs in addition to opera, the new genre reborn from Greek antecedents. Instrumental music flourished with solo and ensemble music for dance as well as accompaniment for vocal performances. Standardization of musical notation and the dissemination of printed music helped establish the primacy of Italian music and musicians as the preeminent progenitors of style and technique.
Madrigal: A strophic song composed in parts with instrumental accompaniment that is set to a vernacular text concerned poetically with love and/or war.
Opera: An opera is a theatrical musical entertainment sung throughout, fully staged with costumes and scenery, the story being told by via the musical numbers. Having its beginnings in Italy around 1600, early operas reenacted Greek mythological themes, and music was relegated to a declamatory style with emphasis on the precise delivery of the text. There is little if any spoken dialogue. The five main parts of opera are the (1) overture, an instrumental piece that sets the stage for what is to come, (2) recitative, known as speaking in music, replaces dialogue in an opera, the function of which is to advance the dramatic action of an opera or oratorio. The recitative is not melodic in character but relies on the natural rise and fall of the declamation and inflection of the text to convey its meaning. (3) aria, a vocal melody that conveys the main emotion of a character, (4) chorus, in which ensemble parts are sung depicting various larger groups of characters within an opera, and (5) dance, using motion to depict certain interpretive scenes.
Claudio Monteverdi: Late Renaissance or early Baroque composer of madrigals, opera and church music. Monteverdi, like Beethoven after him, was an innovator and transitional figure, having one foot in the earlier Renaissance style and the other in the forward-looking Baroque style of musical composition. He introduced a theory of secular and liturgical styles of composition called Prima Prattica and Seconda Prattica. A student of Ingegneri, he entered the service of the Duke of Mantua, where he composed music for the court. and his operas L’Orfeo, Il Ritorno d’Ulisse in Patria and L’Incoronazione di Poppeia. Significant works by Claudio Monteverdi would include: operas such as L’Orfeo (based on the story of Orpheus and Eurydice), L’Arianna, Il Ballo dell'ingrate, Il Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda, Il Ritorno d'Ulisse in patria, and L'incoronazione di Poppea; secular vocal music such as his books of madrigals, and the Vespers of 1610.
Heinrich Schütz: German composer of liturgical music active in the Augsburg region. His notable compositions include a collection of Sinfoniae sacrae for mixed voices, oratorios and motets.
Unit Four: Baroque Music
The Baroque Age: The Protestant Reformation caused important changes in the style and content of liturgical music. The Gregorian chant and the learned polyphonic motets were replaced in Northern Germany by the congregational hymn, or chorale. The Cantata, a choral form using the chorale as its central focus was principal musical element of the Lutheran service. Baroque forms are largely based on the concept of antiphony between groups of players or singers, as in the works of Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1612). Other innovations of the Baroque period include the introduction of purely instrumental forms. The Dance Suite, a collection of musical numbers for aristocratic entertainment would typically include many movements of contrasting tempi and rhythms, such as the Water Music or Royal Fireworks Music suites by George Friderick Handel (1685-1759). These might be assembled for a special occasion, as is the case with these works, or simply be collected for general use. The Concerto is a three-movement piece that features a soloist (or group of solo instruments) such as a violinist, harpsichordist or other instrumentalist against an orchestral accompaniment. Concerti generally display by contrast the virtuosity of whatever solo instrument is featured. The concerto was introduced in Italy where composers like Corelli, Locatelli and others brought it to a high level of development. Antonio Vivaldi (1675-1741) wrote over 600 concerti using a seemingly inexhaustible variety of instrumental combinations, the best known of which are the four comprising the Four Seasons, or Le Quattro Staggione. The six Brandenburg Concertos of Bach must always be mentioned in connection with this genre of composition. Another instrumental form of the Baroque period would be the sonata, which is a piece for solo keyboard or duet for keyboard and one or two other instruments. The harpsichord sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757) are fine examples of the bipartite sonata form. In addition to cantata, the oratorio was introduced as a large-scale religious choral form. The Messiah by Handel and the St. Matthew Passion of Bach are prime examples of oratorios. Opera continued as the most popular form of musical entertainment and was brought to new heights of virtuosity by highly skilled professional singers.
Oratorio: A religious work based on a scriptural theme involving the same musical techniques as opera, in that it conveys a narrative story, but is not staged and does not employ dance. Examples of famous oratorios would be Handel’s The Messiah or Bach’s St. Matthew Passion.
Word Painting: The compositional technique of setting words to music in an interpretive way that expresses melodically alliterative, descriptive or implied meanings in the text. An example of word painting would be Handel’s tenor aria Every Valley from the first part of the Messiah, in which words like crooked, straight, high and low are interpreted in a melodic line that embodies those concepts.
Concerto: A three-movement work that features an instrumental soloist, or group of soloist with orchestral accompaniment.
Instrumental Suite: A sequence of instrumental pieces used primarily for dance and other entertainments. Each individual piece represents characteristic moods distinguished by tempo, meter and rhythm. Some of these would be minuet, gavotte, pavane, sarabande, courante, gigue, galliard, hornpipe and passepied among many others.
Imitative Counterpoint: The style of polyphony used in fugues and other musical works that characterizes Baroque compositional technique.
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750): Along with Handel, Bach’s works form the corpus of most significant Baroque compositions and include the Brandenburg Concertos among numerous other concerti, choral works such as the Mass in B minor, St. Matthew Passion, St. John Passion, as well as many cantatas and motets for liturgical use, organ works such as the Tocatta and Fugue in D minor, and the Well-Tempered Clavier which is a collection of keyboard piece in all 24 major and minor keys. Bach’s compositional style is strictly contrapuntal and it is significant that his final work was The Art of the Fugue since his name is practically synonymous with that compositional discipline. Significant works by Johann Sebastian Bach would include: choral and vocal music such as the Mass in B Minor, St. Matthew Passion, St. John Passion, the Christmas Oratorio, and the Easter Oratorio; cantatas such as Herz und Mund und Tat und Leben, Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, and Ich habe genug; organ music such as Chromatic Fantasia & Fugue in D minor, Dorian Toccata & Fugue in D minor, and Toccata & Fugue in D minor; chamber music; orchestral music such as the six Brandenburg Concertos.
George Friderick Handel (1685-1759): Along with Bach, Handel’s works form the corpus of most significant Baroque compositions and include many Italian operas written for English audiences including Rinaldo and Giulio Cesare. These operas while embodying much beautiful music are not often heard today because they were written for male soprano roles, something that has all but died out of the repertoire. He composed instrumental suites such as the Water Music and Royal Fireworks Music and many other instrumental works. He is probably best known for his oratorio The Messiah containing the immortal Hallelujah Chorus. Significant works by George Friderick Handel would also include: operas such Rinaldo, Giulio Cesare, and Atalanta; oratorios and church music, secular vocal and choral music such as Acis and Galatea; orchestral music such as twelve concertos, Opus 6, and his sixteen Organ Concertos.
Antonio Vivaldi (1675-1741): Composer of hundreds of instrumental concerti including Le Quattro Staggione (Four Seasons) and La Cetra, Vivaldi also wrote many operas which are not often heard today. Known as the Red Priest because of the color of his hair, he wrote numerous choral works for liturgical use, the most famous of which is his setting of Gloria in Excelsis for choir, orchestra and soloists. Significant other works by Antonio Vivaldi would include operas, rarely if ever performed today, instrumental concertos such as L'estro armonico op.3, La stravaganza op.4, and concertos for solo instruments such as the flute, oboe, bassoon, cello and viola d'amore; as well as church music in voluminous quantities.
Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757): Composer of harpsichord sonatas under the patronage of Maria Barbara, Queen of Spain. These 550 single-movement sonatas or 'Exercises' for the harpsichord are crystal examples of the short bipartite form into which he poured a seemingly inexhaustible variety and inventiveness. Although he composed concerti, seven operas, church music and secular cantatas, his reputation chiefly rests upon his sonatas.
Unit Five: The Classical Style
Music of the Classical Period. The main innovations of style determining the Classical period center on the works of Franz Josef Haydn (1732-1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791). These composers introduced standard forms of the String Quartet, symphony, concerto and opera. Based on developments of earlier composers such as J.C and C.P.E. Bach, Stamitz and those composers of the Mannheim school, Haydn introduced the sonata form using it to great effect as a thematic and harmonic vehicle for his compositions. Mozart and others brought this form to a high state of development. Also of major stylistic importance was the shift from polyphonic imitative contrapuntal compositional techniques, such as the fugue that were employed by Baroque composers to great effect, to the newer homophonic style, involving the use of a single melodic line accompanied by a chordal or harmonic figuration. This style continues to in use to this day.
Homophony: A compositional style that came to prominence in the Classical period in which a single melodic line is supported by an accompaniment that is harmonic, not melodic in character. This is in contrast to the baroque style in which the independent voices are juxtaposed in a texture that is primarily contrapuntal in character.
Sonata form: The sonata form is based on the juxtaposition of two themes, the first in the tonic key and the second in the dominant or relative major. These themes are often of contrasting character. An expository form, the sonata is to music much what the essay is to literature. There are three main parts of a sonata, the exposition, development and recapitulation. The exposition consists of the statement of the principal theme in the tonic key, followed by an episode that modulates to the dominant or relative major key area, then the statement of the subordinate or secondary theme in the new key. This is followed by a codetta, or ending that brings the exposition to a cadence in the new key. In earlier symphonies the exposition is often repeated before continuing on to the development. The development provides interest via a variety of compositional techniques usually employing harmonic sequences with no established order but which through their motion return eventually to the tonic key. In the development section, the composer is free to employ whatever means best expresses his musical intent, showing his inventiveness and creativity. The recapitulation restates the principal theme followed by the episode, this time leading back to the tonic key rather than modulating. The subordinate theme is then restated, but this time in the tonic key, completing the harmonic sequence of events. The coda, or final ending passage brings the piece to conclusion.
Scherzo: A movement of vigorous and sometimes humorous character, the word meaning “joke” in Italian, first used by Beethoven, who in his symphonies replaced the minuet and trio employed by earlier classical composers with a scherzo. The scherzo mirrors the structural form of its predecessor, the minuet, but is usually extended. It is ordinarily in a fast tempo and is in triple meter.
Minuet and Trio: A rounded binary form, the Minuet and Trio is set in triple meter at a moderate, stately tempo (although the minuets of Haydn sometimes have a folk-dance character in the style of a laendler) the first part consisting of an opening theme, or first strain that is repeated, matched by a second theme, also repeated. These two passages together constitute the Minuet. This is followed by the Trio section, consisting also of two themes, each repeated, followed by a da capo repetition of the first two strains of the minuet, this time without repeat. This same formal arrangement is employed in the scherzo, although at a faster tempo and different character.
Theme and Variations: The practice of treating a musical theme in various but recognizable ways. Probably having its origins in improvisational music, contrast and variety is achieved by changing the tempo, key, mode, meter, dynamics, articulation, instrumentation, augmentation, diminution, or other aspects of any given theme. There are many famous sets of variations, notably Bach’s Goldberg Variations, the second movement of Haydn’s Symphony #94 in G major (Surprise), the Ode to Joy finale of Beethoven’s Symphony #9 in D minor, or Rachmaninoff’s Variations on a Theme by Paganini, just to name several.
String Quartet: Referring to both a piece of music and the group that plays it, a string quartet consists of two violins, a viola and a cello. Haydn established the standard form of the ensemble in the classical period followed by Mozart and Beethoven. It remains the most often heard genre of chamber music.
Symphony: A genre of orchestral music first established in the classical period by Haydn, then Mozart, it was brought to its most profound manifestation in the nine symphonies of Beethoven. Usually consisting of four movements in succession, the first is generally a sonata form at a fast tempo, the second a slow movement which may be an aria form, a theme and variations set, or other formal design, followed by a Minuet and Trio in earlier classical symphonies, but replaced by a scherzo in Beethoven’s works, and concluding with a finale usually a sonata or sonata-rondo form at a fast tempo befitting a finale.
Franz Josef Haydn (1732-1809): Austrian composer whose works largely define the classical style. He composed 104 symphonies, many instrumental concerti, string quartets, string and keyboard trios, solo sonatas, choral music such as his oratorio The Creation, and opera. His chief innovation was the introduction of the sonata form as a means of organizing the structure of musical ideas. He also pioneered the shift from polyphonic to homophonic technique of composition, and brought this melodic style to the forefront. Respected and highly regarded by his fellow musicians, unassuming and modest of demeanor, he was held in high esteem and was affectionately known as “Papa Haydn”. His works were imitated widely and have become the foundation of classical style. Haydn died in Vienna in 1809 after a long and illustrious career.
Significant works by Franz Josef Haydn would include: church music such as his seven masses, Heiligmesse, Paukenmesse, Coronation Mass, Theresienmesse, Schöpfungsmesse and Harmoniemesse; oratorios such as The Creation (Die Schöpfung), The Seasons (Die Jahreszeiten), Il ritorno di Tobia (The Return of Tobias); two dozen operas; some 400 British folk-song arrangements; 108 symphonies such as No. 94, "The Surprise",No. 96, "The Miracle", No. 100, "The Military", No. 101, "The Clock", No. 103, "The Drumroll"; concertos including two cello concertos, three violin concertos, and a horn concerto; 83 works of string quartets such as the Sun Quartets of 1772, Op. 20, the Russian Quartets Op. 33, written in 1781, including "The Joke" and "The Bird", the Prussian Quartets, Op. 50; of 1787, piano trios such as the G major Trio; as well as nearly 50 keyboard sonatas including English Sonata in C major.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791): Born in Salzburg Austria, Mozart was the quintessential child prodigy. The son of a professional violinist, Leopold Mozart, the young Wolfgang had the opportunity to develop his genius under the tutelage of expert guidance. He works include 41 symphonies, the first of which was composed at age 8, many instrumental concerti, string quartets and trios, chamber music for diverse ensembles, serenades, choral music, piano and violin sonatas, and most notably, operas which remain some of the most beloved in the repertoire and are frequently performed today. Significant works by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart would include: operas such as Die Entführung aus dem Serail (The Abduction from the Seraglio), Le nozze di Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro), La clemenza di Tito (The Clemency of Titus), Così fan tutte (All Women Behave Alike), and Die Zauberflöte (The Magic Flute); church music such as the Requiem Mass, Coronation Mass, and Exsultate; a Serenade entitled Enie, Klenie, Nachtmusik (A Little Night Music), The Serenata notturna, the Posthorn Serenade, the Haffner Serenade, and the Gran Partita; 30 keyboard concertos; chamber music such as a series of quartets for flute and string trio, an oboe, a quintet for French horn, violin, two violas and cello and finally, a clarinet quintet, the Prussian Quartets, Ein musikalische Spass, K. 522 (A Musical Joke), six completed piano trios, two piano quartets, and a quintet for piano, oboe, clarinet, bassoon and French horn, K. 452; as well as 30 violin and piano sonata compositions.
Antonio Salieri was born on August 18, 1750 in Legnano, Italy, and died in Vienna on May 7, 1825. His life and career famously spanned the classical period, from his post in Vienna he came to know and associate with all the great musicians of the age. As a youth, Salieri studied in Vienna with Gassmann whom he succeeded in 1774 as court composer and conductor of the Italian opera. He enjoyed the friendship and patronage of Christoph Willibald Ritter von Gluck, universally admired as the greatest composer of operas in his generation, and worked with Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi, better known by his nom de plume, Metastasio, the great Italian poet and writer of opera seria librettos. From 1768 his reputation rested on his Italian operas written for the Viennese. His operas were well received in Italy where they were presented in 1778-1780, and the success of Tarare in 1787 established him as Gluck's heir and a dominant force in Parisian opera. In 1788 Salieri was appointed court Kapellmeister in Vienna.
Much malicious gossip has maligned Salieri’s musical legacy since the movie Amadeus, following the lead of Pushkin and Rimsky-Korsakov, cast him as the villain in the tragedy surrounding Mozart’s untimely demise. There is however little if any evidence of intrigues by Salieri against the younger man, still less of the charge of poisoning. It is unfortunate that the reputation of a mainstream composer of the classical period should rest on scurrilous rumors and innuendo, hopefully this recording of his music will do its part to dispel the unfortunate cloud of suspicion that undeservedly and unjustly shrouds Salieri’s rightful place in the musical pantheon.
Some significant works of Salieri would include Cublai gran kan de' Tartari: Overture. This dramatic piece is composed of two contrasting themes that set the stage for the drama that is to unfold. Constructed in classic sonata form, the piece uses an orchestra consisting of woodwinds in pairs, two trumpets, timpani and strings. His 26 Variations on La Folia di Spagna is a charming sequence worthy of more attention, full of melodic invention and instrumental color. The use of the harp as protagonist in the 4th variation is particularly effective and remarkable in that the harp was little used as a solo instrument in this period. Instrumental solos and grouping are expertly deployed with in the orchestration. Based on the famous Folia d’Espagne by Corelli, this variation set could be seen as a precursor to the Brahms Variations on a Theme of Haydn, to which it compares very favorably. The overture to L' Angiolina, ossia il matrimonio per sussurro is cast in a single movement, in keeping with classical expository compositional form. The two themes are alternately exciting and lyrical, the orchestration engaging in true classical style. In the genre of the symphony Salieri drew upon material from his operas. The Sinfonia in D major “La Veneziana” is cast in 3 movements: Allegro assai, Andantino grazioso and Presto. This three movement symphony was composed in 1772 and is named for the opera from which it came. It is in many respects reminiscent of early Haydn at his best. Opening with an appropriately energetic allegro assai, the second movement concludes with a dominant cadence that leads directly to the third movement forming a continuous sequence. The piece concludes with a joyous presto in triple meter.
Many overtures and sinfonias of the classical period overlap with regard to their architectural form, and the overture to La locandiera is an example of an overture that might just as well be regarded as a sinfonia. Composed in 1773, this overture consists of three movements that contrast with regard to tempo in a fast-slow-fast pattern. Named after the opera from which it proceeds, this piece is a pristine example of the operatic instrumental style of the late 18th century consisting as it does in three movements: Allegro assai, Andantino and Presto.
Salieri’s Sinfonia in D major “Il giorno onomastico” is closer to the archetype we have come to be familiar with from the classical period, the four-movement sequence consisting of fast-slow-minuet-finale format found in the late Haydn and Mozart symphonies. The piece stands alone as an orchestral work but reveals its true origin in opera through its title. The four movements are marked Allegro, quasi presto, Larghetto, Minuetto: Non tanto allegro con Trio and Allegretto e sempre l'istesso tempo.
Salieri composed his final the opera Falstaff, ossia Le Tre burle in 1799 but abandoned the operatic stage soon after to write sacred choral music, including oratorios and a fine Requiem, and to devote himself to teaching; his pupils included Beethoven, Schubert, and Liszt.
Giovanni Battista Viotti, among the most influential violinists of his generation, was born in Fontanetto da Po in 1753. His father was an amateur horn player who taught him the elements of music, and the young Viotti apparently showed considerable talent for when was 11 years old, he was taken to live and be educated under the protection of Prince Alfonso dal Pozzo della Cisterna in Turin. He studied violin with Antonio Celoniat, but upon his return from London in 1770 Pugnani became Viotti's teacher. Viotti joined the orchestra of the royal chapel at Turin in December 1775, where for five years he played in the first violin section. Viotti could claim direct lineal descent in the continuing tradition of Italian violin-playing that started with Corelli in the last quarter of the 17th century through his teacher and mentor Pugnani, who had studied with Somis, a pupil of Corelli.
In early 1780, he set out with Pugnani on an extensive concert tour which took them to Switzerland, Germany, Poland and Russia. It was during this tour that Viotti had his first work published; his Concerto No. 3 in A major. In late 1781 Viotti went to Paris where he was hailed as one of the foremost violinists of the era through his astonishingly successful début at the Concert Spirituel on March 17, 1782.
In January 1784, Viotti entered the service of Marie Antoinette and began what was to be the most productive period of his life, producing half of all of his published works over the next ten years. During this time he also became the leader of a number of orchestras, and in 1788, with the patronage of the Count of Provence, he established a new opera house called the Théâtre de Monsieur (later renamed Théâtre Feydeau) where many important new operas were introduced including those of Cherubini. Viotti had a new theater constructed and established a series of Holy Week concerts in April of 1792. A few months later, at the pinnacle of his success, Viotti was compelled by events surrounding the French Revolution to flee Paris and take up residence in London.
The Concerto #22, considered as one of the most significant works for the instrument in the late classical period, was written in London between 1793 and 1797, after Viotti had fled Paris in the wake of the French Revolution.
In London Viotti turned again to violin performance, making his début at Salomon's Hanover Square Concert on February 7, 1793. He continued as the featured violinist for Salomon's series for the next two seasons and performed frequently for such notables as the Prince of Wales. During these years he played in the inaugural performances of Haydn’s London Symphonies. Viotti became musical director of the Opera Concerts in 1795, and in the 1794-5 season he served as acting manager of Italian opera at the King's Theatre, and became leader and director of the orchestra there in 1797.
The success that Viotti enjoyed in his career seemed somehow destined to be eclipsed by political misfortune, for in February 1798 the British government, suspecting him of Jacobin activity, ordered him to leave the country. Unjustly accused and with no evidence against him, Viotti protested his innocence, but ultimately had no recourse but to leave London and take up residence with English friends living in Schenfeldt, near Hamburg. While there he composed and published a set of violin duos (op. 5) with the dedication that they were conceived “some in pain, some in hope.” In 1801 was permitted by the authorities to return to London and left Germany. At this point in his life Viotti retired almost entirely from music in order to devote himself to a wine business that he had set up prior to his exile and continued to play violin and compose only for his friends.
In 1818 his wine business failed, leaving Viotti deeply in debt. Out of financial necessity and in hopes of restarting his musical career, he applied for the post of director of the Paris Opéra. With the support of his former patron, the Count of Provence, who had now ascended the French throne as Louis XVIII, Viotti took up this post on November 1, 1819. Once again political misfortune came into play for less than four months later the Duc de Berry was assassinated at the Opéra, arousing a public backlash and the antipathy of royal patrons. As a consequence of this unfortunate event, the Paris Opéra was removed to a smaller theater where it floundered, beset by innumerable financial difficulties. As director of the Opéra, Viotti bore the brunt of heavy criticism and was accused of mismanagement. In November 1821, heavily in debt and with only a negligible pension and a relatively inconsequential position as nominal director of the Italian Theatre to provide him with an income, he resigned his post. Two years later he returned to London for the last time to live with his closest friends, Mr and Mrs William Chinnery in Portman Square. There he died in March of 1824.
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1825): Born in Bonn, Germany in 1770, died in Vienna, Austria in 1825, composer of many important seminal works that formed the transitional culmination of the classical style and the foundation of the romantic style of musical composition. Beethoven’s main innovations were to expand and intensify the classical forms and genres such as symphony, string quartet, sonata and concerto as inherited from Haydn and Mozart, and to bring them into a new era. One of the key figures in music history, the impact Beethoven had on his contemporaries and the development of musical style cannot be overstated. He brought a uniquely philosophical approach to musical expression that was to leave its mark and cast a long shadow over the generations of musicians who followed in his giant footsteps. Significant works by Ludwig van Beethoven would include: stage works such as the opera Fidelio and the ballet The Creatures of Prometheus; choral and vocal music such as the Missa Solennis, the oratorio The Mount of Olives, and An die ferne Geliebte (To the Distant Beloved); 9 symphonies such as the Third, "Eroica", the Fifth, the Sixth, "Pastoral", and the Ninth, "Choral"; overtures including Egmont, Coriolan, Prometheus, The Consecration of the House and The Ruins of Athens; one violin concerto, five piano concertos, a triple concerto for violin, cello and piano, and Choral Fantasia; ten sonatas for violin and piano, including "Spring" and the "Kreutzer", the string quartet, Opus 18 set of quartets, the Razumovsky Quartets, Opus 59, Grosse Fuge (Great Fugue), a number of Trios for violin, cello and piano, with the "Archduke" Trio and the "Ghost" Trio; piano sonatas such as the Pathétique, Op. 13, Moonlight, Op. 27/2, Waldstein, Op. 53, Appassionata, Op. 57, Les Adieux, Op. 81a, and the Hammerklavier, Op. 106, three sets of Bagatelles, and Fur Elise; dance music such as sets of Minuets, German Dances and Contredanses such as the Mödlinger Dances.
Franz Peter Schubert (1797-1828): Austrian composer of 9 symphonies, chamber music including the Trout Quintet and the Death and the Maiden string quartet, Schubert is mainly known for his beautiful songs, or lieder, of which he composed over 900, among these is his famous song cycle Die Schöne Müllerin. He lived and died in relative obscurity, his music being rediscovered in the late 19th century. Although by his birth he should rightly be considered a late classical era composer, his music has much more in common with the later early romantic period, and therefore must be regarded as a transitional figure with one foot rooted in the soil of each camp. His symphonies belong to the earlier style both in structure and content, but his songs usher in the newer more poetic language of the romantic period. Significant works by Franz Peter Schubert would include: opera music including Fürstin von Zypern (Rosamunde, Princess of Cyprus); choral and vocal music such as Die schöne Müllerin (The Fair Maid of the Mill) and Die Winterreise (The Winter Journey); 9 symphonies including the Great C major Symphony and the Fifth Symphony; chamber music such as the Quartet in A minor, Death and the Maiden, Die Forelle (The Trout), the great C major String Quintet, and the Arpeggione Sonata; piano music such as Wanderer Fantasia.
Unit Six: The Romantic Period
Nationalism: During the 19th century composers were interested in the development of national styles and idioms. Based on linguistic and literary traditions, folklore, dance music, political, geographical and other regional characteristics, the music of any given country or province was articulated in a unique local expression by native composers into the musical mainstream. In a technical sense, ethnic or national differences in musical expression can be discerned in melodic and harmonic usage, distinctive rhythms, instrumental practices, narrative themes and folk songs. Practically every country and province developed a consciously nationalistic style of music during this period.
Germany in the 19th century: The generation immediately following Beethoven in the German-speaking regions was represented by Felix Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann, each in his own way guiding the path of experimentation with older symphonic forms and the introduction of newer, more expressive genres such as the symphonic poem, concert overture, incidental music and lieder, or art songs.
The music of Germany during the later 19th century is represented by the compositions of Brahms, Wagner, Richard Strauss and Johann Strauss Jr. among many others. Each of these developed a personal style distinguished by genre, style, technique and musical expression. A controversy developed between the partisans of Wagner who took German nationalism to its most extreme, and those of Brahms who pursued a traditional, scholarly almost academic approach to musical composition. The symphonies of Brahms and the music dramas of Wagner can be said to represent the divergence between these two camps.
Robert Schumann (1810-1856): Prolific German composer of 4 symphonies, music for solo piano, including the Carnaval suite that celebrated the styles of well known pianists of the time, songs, concerti for piano, cello and violin, a Konzertstück for 4 horns and orchestra, chamber music, an opera and incidental music for orchestra. Also known as an author on musical subjects, publishing articles in the Neue Zeitschrift fuer Musik, championing the new romantic style of composition. He often had a narrative intent in his music, for instance the portrayal of a religious ceremony in his Rhenish Symphony, and was among the first to recognize the genius of Johannes Brahms. He married pianist Clara Wieck, daughter of the famous piano pedagogue, who was an accomplished musician in her own right. Near the end of his life he suffered a mental breakdown and spent his last two years in an asylum. Significant works by Robert Schumann would include: orchestral music such as 4 symphonies including “The Spring” and “Rhenish,” The Cello Concerto of 1850, and The Konzertstück; operas such as Genoveva; concert overtures such as Die Braut von Messina (The Bride from Messina), Julius Cäsar, and Hermann und Dorothea; chamber music such as 3 string quartets three piano trios, three violin sonatas, the Märchenbilder for viola and piano, Phantasiestücke, and the cello and piano Fünf Stücke im Volkston; piano music such as the Davidsbündlertänze (Dances of the League of David), Kinderszenen (Scenes of Childhood), Kreisleriana, Papillons (Butterflies), the Album für die Jugend of 1848, Waldszenen of 1849 and the collected Bunte Blätter and Albumblätter.
Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847): Mendelssohn is among the most important composers in the generation following Beethoven. A child prodigy, he showed compositional talent at a very young age and was encouraged early on to pursue a career in music. At age 17 he composed some incidental music for a production of Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream that from its inception has remained a staple of the orchestral repertoire. His other significant compositions include 5 symphonies, overtures, concerti for piano and violin, and much chamber music. His oratorios, especially Elijah, are often heard in concert. He was a founder of the Leipzig Gewandhaus orchestra, and served as one of its first principal conductors, in which capacity he brought forth important new works by many other composers. He reintroduced the music of Bach most of which had been all but forgotten by giving the first performance of the St. Matthew Passion since that great composer’s death. He died in Leipzig in 1847. Significant works by Felix Mendelssohn would include: orchestral music such as 5 symphonies, the Italian Symphony, Symphony No.4, Symphony No. 3, the Scottish, Symphony No. 5, the Reformation, Symphony No. 2, the choral Lobgesang; overtures such as A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Hebrides, Meeresstille und glückliche Fahrt (Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage), and Ruy Blas; concertos such as the Violin Concerto in E minor; chamber music such as the Octet, the Sextet, String Quartet No. 4 in E minor, the Piano Trio in D minor, the Piano Trio in C minor, two Cello Sonatas and the Variations concertantes, and Lieder ohne Worte (Song without Words) for cello and piano; stage music for A Midsummer Night's Dream, Antigone and Oedipus, and Racine’s Athalie; choral music such as Hear my prayer, Hark the herald angels sing, Elijah, St. Paul, Jauchzet den Herrn (Praise the Lord), Hexenlied (Witches' Song), Im Frühling (In the Spring), and Im Herbst (In the Autumn).
Johannes Brahms (1833-1897): Began his career as a pianist, and came to the attention of Schumann who is credited with first recognizing his genius. His first orchestral success was a piece entitled Variations on a Theme by Haydn, the stated theme of which more recent scholarship has shown not to be by Haydn at all, but that is not relevant to Brahms’ work. Composer of 4 symphonies, 2 piano concerti and a violin concerto, as well as the monumental German Requiem, Brahms never wrote an opera. He is generally regarded as the inheritor of the Beethoven symphonic tradition. Other significant works by Johannes Brahms would include: two Serenades, the Academic Festival Overture and the Tragic Overture, a Double Concerto for violin and cello; chamber music such as sonatas, Op. 38 and 99, two late sonatas for clarinet or viola and piano, Op. 120, a Trio for clarinet, cello and piano, Op. 114, a Quintet for clarinet and string quartet, 3 piano trios, the Trio for violin, horn and piano, 3 piano quartets, a piano quintet, 3 string quartets, 2 string sextets, and 2 string quintets; piano music such Variations on a Theme of Handel, the Paganini Variations, Four Ballades, three Piano Sonatas, Piano Pieces, and the Fantasias; vocal and choral music such as the repertoire of German Lied (art song), the Liebeslieder Waltzes, Wiegenlied (Cradle Song), Vergebliches Ständchen (Vain Serenade), Gestillte Sehnsucht (Tranquil Yearning), the Christmas Geistliches Wiegenlied (Spiritual Cradle-Song), and the Schicksalslied (Song of Destiny).
Richard Wagner (1813-1883): Having heard a Beethoven symphony performed at age 15, Wagner was moved to seek a career as a composer. After composing a symphony himself, he is said to have proclaimed that the symphony was exhausted as a vehicle for new composition, because Beethoven had already achieved everything important in the genre. He turned his attention to opera beginning with Rienzi in 1842, and followed by the Der fliegende Holländer (The Flying Dutchman) and Tannhauser in 1843-4. His greatest effort came forth with the Ring of the Nibelung cycle of 4 operas tied together as a continuing saga of Norse mythology including Das Rheingold, Die Walküre (The Valkyries), Siegfried and Götterdämmerung (The Twilight of the Gods). His other operas include Tristan und Isolde, Lohengrin, Der Meistersinger and Parsifal. He wrote his orchestral serenade Siegfried Idyll for his wife’s birthday.
Music Drama: The operatic productions based on Norse mythology by Richard Wagner. Das Ring des Nibelungen, and Parsifal fall into this genre. Requiring a whole new theater to be built to accommodate his grand vision of the Ring cycle, Wagner introduced many revolutionary ideas into his music, among them the use of leitmotifs to represent specific characterizations in the drama, and the departure from the da capo aria form in favor of the durchkomponiert, or “through-composed” method of vocal writing. Based on Norse mythology, Das Ring cycle is the quintessentially German manifestation of nationalism in 19th century music.
Johann Strauss, Jr. (1825-1899): Strauss was a Viennese composer known as the Waltz king for his many beautiful excursions into this popular 19th century genre. Some 400 waltzes are listed in his catalogue of works. He also composed 15 operettas, the most famous of which is Die Fledermaus. His music is inextricably identified with Austro-Hungarian Romanticism of the Habsburg epoch. Significant works by Johann Strauss Jr. would include 16 operettas including Die Fledermaus (The Bat) and Der Zigeunerbaron (The Gypsy Baron); dance music such as waltzes, polkas, quadrilles, and marches including An der schönen, blauen Donau (The Blue Danube), Wiener Blut and Tales from the Vienna Woods.
Italy in the 19th century: Opera remained the most important musical form during the nationalist period in 19th century Italy. Composers such as Rossini, Bellini, Leoncavallo, Mascagni, Donizetti, Verdi and later Puccini brought opera to the state in which we find it today. Although aware of developments in France and Germany, such as the interpolation of ballets and Wagner’s music dramas, Italian composers continued the older tradition of bel canto singing and da capo aria, elevating these forms to a new level of musical expression commonly referred to as Grand Opera. The center of opera production in Italy was the Teatro della Scala in Milan where the most important works were introduced.
Bel canto: This term has two meanings (1) the traditional Italian art of fine singing and (2) the style of writing that began in the middle Baroque period and developed through the 19th century. The term literally means “beautiful singing”.
Opera Seria: Opera with a serious or tragic narrative. The five main parts of opera are the overture, recitative, aria, chorus and dance. Of these, the traditional da capo aria form with recitative is the most essential ingredient of operatic style. Dances, while sometimes used, are not always included, the vocal line being the principal protagonist that conveys the story.
Opera Buffa: Opera with a comic narrative, also using traditional da capo aria forms with recitative. An example of an opera buffa would be The Barber of Seville by Rossini.
Grand Opera: Refers to late 19th century opera as performed at La Scala in Milan, using the Italian style of bel canto singing in an elaborately staged production, such as Verdi’s Aida or similar opera.
Operetta: A musical entertainment patterned after and deriving from opera, but having a generally lighter character and subject matter. They are comedies, not tragedies, and while opera is sung throughout, operetta allows the use of dialogue. The operetta is regarded as the forerunner of the modern American Broadway musical. Operettas often employ elements of the popular music of the day, including such dance numbers as the waltz, polka or can-can. Composers known for their contributions to this genre would include Johann Strauss Jr., Jacques Offenbach, Franz Lehar, and in England the team of Gilbert and Sullivan.
Gioacchino Rossini (1792-1868): The most widely recognized composer of Italian opera of his day, Rossini’s early works include Tancredi and L’Italiana in Algeri. His career was firmly established with the success of The Barber of Seville in 1816 when he was 26 years old. With this opera he toured Europe including a triumphant journey to Vienna where he met Beethoven who said of him “Rossini has some nice melodies, but what he knows about music wouldn’t fill his fat belly with potatoes.” Other than this somewhat pejorative personal comment, the Maestro is said to have been pleased with the opera. Rossini later settled in Paris where he held the post of director of the Théâtre Italien. There, in 1829, he composed William Tell with its world-renown overture. The best musician among cooks and the best cook amongst musicians, Rossini was a master chef, well versed in gastronomical affairs. He claimed to have wept only twice in his life, once when he saw the great Italian actor Demarini perform, and the other time when a truffled turkey fell accidentally into the water at a boating party. Having heard Wagner’s Das Ring des Nibelungen at Bayreuth, Rossini is quoted as saying the “Wagner has some nice moments, but some bad quarters of an hour.” Rossini died in Paris in 1868.
Significant works by Gioacchino Rossini would include: operas such as Il Barbiere di Siviglia (The Barber of Seville), La Scala di Seta (The Silken Ladder), Il Signor Bruschino, L'Italiana in Algeri (The Italian Girl in Algiers), Il Turco in Italia (The Turk in Italy), La Cenerentola (Cinderella), La Gazza ladra (The Thieving Magpie), Otello, Semiramide, Mose in Egitto (Moses in Egypt) and the French Guillaume Tell (William Tell); church music such as the Petite Messe solennelle and Stabat mater; chamber music such as the String Sonatas and Péchés de vieillesse (Sins of Old Age).
Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901): Italian composer of grand opera, used melodies closer to folk song than his predecessors Rossini, Bellini or Donizetti. Verdi’s operas develop along a continuously unfolding dramatic narrative while preserving the forms of recitative and aria. His first successful opera Nabucco premiered in 1842, and made his name as a musician as well as a political revolutionary due to the association made between the chorus of the Hebrew slaves and the struggle of Italian partisans against Austrian rule. He followed this in 1843 with I Lombardi, and later La Forza del Destino. His opera Rigoletto was among the first to feature a baritone rather than a tenor as the main protagonist. Verdi died in 1901 in Milan.
Significant works by Giuseppe Verdi would include: operas such as Nabucco (Nebuchadnezzar), Macbeth, Rigoletto, Il Trovatore, La Traviata, Les Vêpres Siciliennes (The Sicilian Vespers), Simon Boccanegra, Un Ballo in Maschera (A Masked Ball), La Forza del Destino (The Force of Destiny), Don Carlos, Aida, Otello and Falstaff; church music such as the Requiem and The Quattro pezzi sacri (Four Sacred Pieces).
Bohemia in the 19th century: Composers Bedrich Smetana (1824-1884) and Antonin Dvořák (1841-1904) were the main protagonists of a distinctively Czech style of music. Smetana wrote 8 operas including the popular Bartered Bride for the newly founded Czech national opera company, and in 1879 he composed his musical tribute to his homeland, Ma Vlast, a cycle of 4 symphonic poems including Die Moldau, a piece depicting the progress of the river Moldau from its source high in the mountains, through the plains of Bohemia and on through the great capital city of Prague. In a similar vein, Dvořák’s Slavonic Dances for orchestra celebrate Bohemian folk dance traditions in their idiomatic use of melodic line and rhythm. His 9 symphonies, concerti for violin, and cello, and symphonic poems are strongly imbued with the Slavic accent of the Czech national style. The most famous of his orchestral works is the Symphony #9 in E minor (From the New World) which although having been composed during his stay in the United States as an example to young American composers how to go about cultivating a national style of their own, is far more reminiscent of his own background as a central European composer. The second movement of this symphony is especially homesick for his native country.
Russia in the 19th Century: Beginning with the music of Glinka, a national style was consciously developed in the later 19th century by a group of composers called The Russian Five: Rimsky-Korsakov, Borodin, Mussorgsky, Cui, and Glazounov. Through their works they sought to cultivate a unique and distinctive nation style based on folklore and dance, language and literary traditions as well as drawing from Russian history. Tchaikovsky, although not a member of the five, also was a main exponent of Russian music, his ballets occupying a central place in the repertoire.
Ballet: From its beginnings as part of opera, ballet established a vogue and became popular in its own right during the late 19th century. Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker Ballet, Swan Lake and Sleeping Beauty are examples of the romantic standard ballets. An earlier example would be Coppelia by Leo Delibes, or Les Sylphides, based on the music of Frederick Chopin.
Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893): Russian composer of 6 symphonies, concerti, chamber music, operas and ballets. Temperamental and tormented, he found expression in some the most moving and passionate passages in the romantic repertoire. His Swan Lake, Sleeping Beauty and Nutcracker ballets from the central core of the ballet repertoire. He also wrote symphonic poems such as Romeo and Juliet, the Overture Solennelle 1812, Capriccio Italien and the Marche Slav, all of which remain audience favorites. Other significant works by Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky would include: operas such as Eugene Onegin and the Queen of Spades; fantasy overtures such as Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, The Tempest, The Voyevoda, concertos including 3 piano concertos, cello pieces such as the Rococo Variations and the Pezzo capriccioso, the Sérénade mélancholique, the Valse-scherzo, and Souvenir d'un lieu cher; chamber music including 3 string quartets; piano music such as the Seasons.
Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908): Russian nationalist composer of operas, symphonies and other works. He was the most significant and influential composer of the Russian five, whose works he advocated and some of which he orchestrated. His symphonic poem Scheherazade remains a favorite of the repertoire with its vibrant colors evocative of the mysterious near East. Nikolay Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov was born on March 18, 1844 in Tikhvin, Russia. His musical education began with private music lessons ant his home, at the age of six. When Rimsky-Korsakov was twelve years old, he entered the Naval School of Cadets in St. Petersburg where, although focused on his studies, continued to play piano at his leisure. He later took a job as a naval officer while continuing to devote more and more time to his music. While on a two and a half year tour of duty, he managed to write his first symphony which he would perfect. Later he became the leader of an influential musical group named “The Five” or “The Mighty Handful.” He then joined the faculty at the conservatory in St. Petersburg where he held a teaching position for the rest of his life. Rimsky-Korsakov’s music is from the Baroque period and had a definite Russian-nationalist sound. Rimsky-Korsakov died on June 12, 1908 of heart complications in Lyubensk, St. Petersburg, Russia. Some of Rimsky-Korsakov’s symphonic works include: First Symphony, Overture on Three Russian Themes, Fantasia on Serbian Themes, Sadko (a musical picture), Antar (Second Symphony), Third Symphony, A Tale, Symphoniette on Russian themes, Capriccio Espagnol, Overture La Grande Paque Russe, and his most famous symphonic piece, Scheherazade. His operas include: The Maiden of Pskov, The May Night, The Snowmaiden, Mlada (opera-ballet), The Christmas Night, Sadko, Mozart and Salieri, Vera Sheloga, The Tsar's Bride, The Tale of Tsar Saltan, Servilia, Kashtshey Immortal, Pan Voyevoda, The Legend of the Invisible town Kitez, and Le Coq d'Or.
Alexander Borodin (1839-1887): Russian nationalist composer of 3 symphonies, an opera Prince Igor that contains the famous Polovetsian Dances, and a symphonic poem On the Steppes of Central Asia that depicts an encounter in the steppes between a caravan with its loping camels and a group of Russian soldiers. A member of the Russian Five group of nationalist composers headed by Rimsky-Korsakov, Borodin was a chemist by trade who composed music in his spare time. His String Quartet is typical of his work, with its bittersweet melodies full of sentimental nostalgia balanced by an energetic rhythmic vitality the whole effect being evocative of Russian exoticism.
France in the 19th Century: French romantic music centered on the opera, with some attention paid to symphonic forms. Composers Gounod, Bizet, Offenbach and Saint-Saens were principal architects of French musical style, followed later by the impressionist Claude Debussy.
Camille Saint-Saëns (1835-1921): Throughout his long and productive life Saint-Saëns was a major exponent of French Romanticism. Saint-Saëns is quoted as having said of himself that he produces music “as easily as an apple tree produces apples.” He is the composer of symphonies, concerti, symphonic poems, and opera, the best known of which is Samson and Delilah with its famous bacchanale. A Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur and a founding member of the Société Nationale de Musique, his contributions to the French repertoire were enormous. Among his popular symphonic poems is the Danse Macabre, a fanciful Hallowe’en type piece in which Satan is depicted leading the dance while witches, goblins and skeletons cavort to the strains of his fiddle. The suiteCarnival of the Animals is like a trip to the zoo in which impressions of various animals are given by means of melodic ideas and instrumental color.
Significant works by Camille Saint-Saëns would include: 13 operas including Samson et Dalila; sacred and secular choral works; 3 symphonies including "Organ" Symphony; orchestral music such as Le Rouet d'Omphale (Omphale's Wheel) and Danse macabre; chamber music such as a series of duo sonatas, including two violin sonatas, two cello sonatas, also Carnival of the Animals.
Jacques Offenbach (1819-1880): For all his German sounding name, and having originally emigrated from Cologne, Offenbach was essentially a French composer having studied at the Paris Conservatoire. He became director of the Théâtre Français where over the course of 25 years he premiered nearly a hundred operettas. His best-known works are the irreverent stage production of Orpheus in the Underworld, which includes the world-famous can-can, and La Belle Hélène in which he combines an effervescent melodiousness with sincere romanticism. Other significant works by Jacques Offenbach would include La vie Parisienne, and Les contes d'Hoffmann (The Tales of Hoffmann). With their memorable tunes and witty orchestration, Offenbach’s operettas are quintessentially French music of the Romantic period.
Georges Bizet (1835-1875): Composer of French opera most notably Carmen, first performed in 1875. Although showing great promise as a youth and having won prestigious awards as a student, Bizet’s potential as a composer was not fully realized at his untimely death. He left many projects incomplete. He is historically important in that he rescued opera-comique from the artificialities of operetta. Significant works by Georges Bizet would include: operas such as Carmen and L'Arlésienne; piano music such as the two-piano Jeux d'enfants, Children's Games.
Impressionism: A term borrowed from a style of painting that became popular in France in the late 19th century through the works of Monet, Manet, Pissarro, Cezanne and others. In the visual arts, impressionist painters created a world of light and shadow not wholly dependent on traditional realism and rules of perspective that hitherto had governed form, balance and spatial delineation. In the musical sense, the term applies to the harmonic language exemplified in the compositions of Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. Their ideas transcend to a different musical atmosphere by suspension of the traditional diatonic sequences, instead using modes and scales that yield a texture richly evocative and dreamlike in contrast to their Romantic contemporaries.
Claude Debussy (1862-1918): French Impressionist composer. Entered the Paris Conservatoire at age 11, having shown considerable talent on the piano as a child. His earliest success as a composer came at age 22 with his cantata, L’Enfant Prodigue that won the prestigious Prix de Rome. He soon thereafter accepted the invitation of Madame von Meck, who was also Tchaikovsky’s wealthy patroness, to accompany her as family pianist on their vacations in Russia, Switzerland and Italy during 1880 and 1881. In Italy he met Liszt, Verdi and Boito. He came to be greatly influenced by the music dramas of Wagner, and made the pilgrimage to Beyreuth in 1888 and 1889. His close friendship with eccentric composer Eric Satie led him gradually in a new direction and by 1888 had found his own voice with La Damoiselle Elue. His orchestral Nocturnes performed in 1899 established his reputation though his revolutionary harmonic style was violently attacked in academic circles. His opera Pelleas et Melisande, was performed in 1902 and earned the composer the Croix d’Honneur. He subsequently traveled to London and throughout Europe conducting performances of his own music. His last years were plagued by divorce, lawsuits and illness. His lasting contribution to music was his unorthodox harmonic language that relied on non-diatonic sequences, scales and textures that opened important new dimensions in musical expression.
Other 19th century composers with Nationalist tendencies: This list includes Hungarian, Norwegian, Finnish and Polish composers. It should be duly noted that these are but a few mentioned among many others beyond the scope of this survey.
Franz Liszt (1811-1886): Hungarian composer and pianist, known for his legendary virtuosity, instrumental in promoting the careers of many musicians in the Romantic period. His Transcendental Etudes for piano are a high-water mark for the pianist’s repertoire. Following the nationalist trend, who wrote many Hungarian Rhapsodies that are popular both as piano solos and in orchestral transcription. His other significant works include Les Preludes for orchestra, his Piano Concerti, numerous transcriptions of music by other composers including Wagner and Berlioz, symphonic poems including Ce qu'on entend sur la montagne, Les préludes, the Faust Symphony in Three Character-Sketches, the Symphony on Dante's Divina commedia, two episodes from Lenau's Faust, the second the First Mephisto Waltz, two piano concertos, a Totentanz or Dance of Death and a Fantasy on Hungarian Folk-Melodies, and Hungarian Rhapsodies; piano music such as the Etudes d'exécution transcendante d'après Paganini, including Wilde Jagd (a Wild Hunt), Harmonies du soir (Evening Harmony), and Chasse-Neige, The Harmonies poétiques et religieuses, the Légendes, Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, and Fantasia and Fugue.
Edvard Grieg (1843-1907): Norwegian composer of incidental music to the play Peer Gynt, and the Piano Concerto in A minor. Grieg studied in Leipzig, Germany before returning to his native Norway where he dedicated himself to composing miniatures for piano displaying a markedly national character. His Norwegian Dances for orchestra often add color to symphonic programs. His piano collection, Norwegian Peasant Dances are representative of his style. Significant works by Edvard Grieg would include in addition to stage works such as Sigurd Jorsalfar and Peer Gynt; orchestral music such as two Peer Gynt Suites, three pieces from Sigurd Jorsalfar, Suite from the Time of Holberg, two Elegiac Melodies, and the Lyric Suite; chamber music including the three violin sonatas; piano music such as ten volumes of Lyric Pieces.
Jan Sibelius (1865-1957): Finland’s most notable composer, established his career with the success of his symphonic poems Finlandia, a patriotic call to arms against the Russians, and the Swan of Tuonela. His Violin Concerto and 5 symphonies are staples of the orchestral repertoire. Significant works by Jan Sibelius would include: stage work such as incidental music for Maeterlinck's Pelléas et Mélisande and for Belshazzar's Feast, Karelia Suite, and Valse triste; orchestral works such as 7 symphonies, symphonic poems including En Saga, the Lemminkäinen Suite, the Swan of Tuonela, Lemminkäinen's Return, Pohjola's Daughter, and Tapiola; and chamber music such as the string quartet, "Voces intimae.”
Frédéric Chopin (1810-1840): Polish ex-patriot composer of piano music. One of the finest virtuosi of his day, his music endures as some of the most beloved in the piano repertoire. He never forgot the music of his native Poland, and it is best in evidence in his Mazurkas. In addition to numerous concert pieces such as his Waltzes, Nocturnes, Preludes and Mazurkas, he composed many Études, each demonstrating a particular aspect of the pianists’ technique. He tried his hand at major forms in his two piano concertos and the sonata for cello and piano, but his true contribution to the pianist’s repertoire are as a miniaturist, composing many beautiful pieces for piano solo. Significant works by Frederic Chopin include 3 works based on Polish themes, a Fantasia, a Krakowiak and a Grand polonaise; chamber music such as Introduction and Polonaise for cello and piano, G minor Piano Trio; piano music such as the Minute Waltz, Polish Dance, Polonaise, Polonaise in A major, Opus 40 No. 1, Polonaise in A flat, Opus 53, and the Polonaise- Fantaisie, Opus 61, the 62 Mazurkas, the 21 Nocturnes, 26 Preludes, 4 Scherzos, 3 Sonatas, a Berceuse, a Barcarolle, and four Impromptus.
Unit Seven: The Modernists
The Modern Period in music is characterized by the final extension and breakdown of traditional diatonic chromatic harmony, evolving into atonality, polytonality, and a plethora of modal and harmonic experimental systems juxtaposed against asymmetrical rhythms, and a general revolution involving ethnic, political and social influences.
Russian or Soviet modernists would include Stravinsky, Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Kabalevsky and the Armenian Khachaturian.
The French school includes Maurice Ravel (1875-1937), Satie, Poulenc and Mihaud.
Hungarians are represented by Bartòk and Kodaly. The German Expressionist school is represented by Schoenberg and his disciples, Berg and Webern.
American composers would include Gershwin, Copland, Barber and Hanson in addition to the experimentalists Varese, Ives and Cage. Most recently minimalist composers Steve Reich and Philip Glass have enjoyed a vogue. Development of Musical Style in 20th Century American Music:
I. Gospel
II. Work Songs
III. Folk Songs
IV. Southern
V. Appalachian
VI. Blues as genre
VII. Ragtime
VIII. Dixieland
IX. Gershwin
X. Big Band Jazz
XI. Be-Bop and/or Modern Jazz
XII. Classical or Mainstream Academia
XIII. Broadway
XIV. Movies
XV. Continuation of Folk and Blues as Country, Bluegrass, R&B.
XVI. Rock of the 1950s and 60s
XVII. Post-Rock: Disco, Ethnic, Techno, Hip-Hop, Rap
Glossary
Modulation: The process of moving from one key or tonality to another.
Degrees of the scale: The degrees of the diatonic major and minor scales are: tonic, supertonic, mediant, sub-dominant, dominant, sub-mediant, leading tone and octave.
Tempo indication: Adjective traditionally in Italian that in conjunction with a metronome marking indicates how fast or how slow a piece of music is to be played.
Dynamics: Indicate the relative loudness or softness of a musical piece.
Time signature: Indicates the meter, usually duple or triple, (or some combination of those) in terms of how many beats per measure, or bar line in a piece of music.
Intonation: The tuning of a scale or musical instrument. Musical pitches are determined by their relative frequency of cycles per second.
Articulation: The manner in which a piece is phrased whether it be staccato (short), legato (long), or method of attack that gives a certain sound to the music.